PSY 240 Assignments 3 & 4

PSY240 Assignments 3 and 4

Assignment 3 (Chapters 11-14)

1) Explain the psychosocial outcomes for early-maturing girls and boys. (p.337-338)

·      Early-maturing girls generally suffer from more negative psychosocial outcomes as their bodies tend to mature earlier than the boys leaving them the target of envy from other girls and of lust from horny boys. Changes in appearance cause the girl to be viewed as a “woman” increasing possible risk of delinquency.

·      Early-maturing boys generally benefit from better self-esteem through increased popularity as they are now viewed as a “man” instead of a boy or kid. However, there is an increased risk of delinquent activities due to the adolescent being seen as an adult.

2) Explain how changes in adolescents’ cognitive abilities affect their relationships with their parents and peers. (p.353-357)

The higher cognitive abilities in deductive reasoning and hypothetical thinking allows adolescences to plan ahead and predict possible consequences making them more clever in their interactions with others. This improves their negotiation skills with their peers and allows them to adjust accordingly to specific social groups.

Increase in thinking capacity also allows for metacognition and improved introspection leading some adolescence to develop adolescent egocentrism, the belief that they are the main character in the story of the world. As such, they believe their actions and decisions are unique and influential. This can lead to the so-called “rebellious phase” where adolescence challenge their parents view of the world with their newfound skepticism and sophisticated understanding of newly discovered fallacies.

3) Define and give examples of each of James Marcia’s categories of identity status. (p.376)

James Marcia’s Identity Status closely ties into the idea of Erikson’s psychosocial stage of Identity vs Identity Diffusion. Based on self-reported data individuals are sorted into 4 categories based on measurements of exploration and commitment:

·      Identity Achievement = (+) Both Exploration and Commitment à Established identity; example: Established journalist writing for NYT that leans left.

·      Moratorium = (+) Exploration (–) Commitment à Experimenting with identity; example: Fresh intern at political think tank trying to figure out right/left leanings.

·      Identity Foreclosure = (–) Exploration (+) Commitment à Chose preset identity; example: Conservative Catholic son that followed parents religion.

·      Identity Diffusion = (–) Both Exploration and Commitment à Gave up on identity and follows the fickle crowd; example: Major depressive college student that continues to follow different identities of their surrounding peers, but quits when upset.

4) What is a clique? How does belonging to a clique help adolescents resolve the identity crisis described by Erik Erikson? (p.383-386)

Clique is a small group of usually less than 12 people of the same gender and age that usually share a common activity. Unlike larger crowds where interactions are impersonal, cliques allow for more personal connections creating a good environment for adolescents to learn or improve their social skills. These improvements to social skills help the adolescent construct their identity within the peer network.

5) Discuss gender differences in adolescent friendships. (p.387-388)

·      Male adolescent friendships are less intimate with a greater focus on shared activities instead of discussion. Conflicts within male groups revolve around power and control and are more likely to resolve without much input from both parties.

·      Female adolescent friendships are more intimate with greater levels of emotional support and discussion. Intimacy is often expressed through verbal communication (“Girl talk”). Conflict within female groups revolve around social betrayal (real or perceived) and require an apology from either party. Unfortunately, in middle adolescence girls become more anxious causing more jealously between peers (double edge sword as later in life male suffer from a lack of intimacy among their peers).

6) Discuss the consequences, causes, and available treatments for infertility. (p.420)

Infertility is caused by either environmental factors such as poor nutrition or exposure to radiation or by genetics factors such as poor sperm quality. The consequences of infertility in young adulthood are traumatic as it is during this period that couples are trying to start a family. Failure to conceive often has an impact on relations because societal and cultural views towards marriage hinge heavily on having kids so as to perpetuate the next generation. In addition, a poor understanding of the reason for infertility may result in either partner being blamed for being unable to fulfill their “duties.”

7) Define the concept of stereotype threat and discuss how such a threat can hurt the performance of individuals. (p.432)

Stereotype threat is the psychological effect of the “self-fulfilling” prophecy in action. Where belief or even knowledge of negative stereotypes produce poorer outcomes for those stereotyped. For example, Blacks in the US are often stereotyped as lazy and or violent. This is often presented through media such as songs, movies, and shows. These negative portrayals of Blacks lead to higher rates of crime, and occupational difficulties as Blacks who see or hear about such stereotypes end up perpetuating them based on their environmental stimuli.

8) Define the social clock. Explain what it means to be on time or off time developmentally. Give an example of someone who is off time and discuss the repercussions of being off time for that person. (p.439)

The social clock is the society’s standards of achievement for individuals at different ages. When people are “on time” they are experiencing events or achievements at the ageing society expects. When people are “off time” they are experience events earlier or later than societal expectations.

For example, let us say that a college graduate at the age of 28 has spent over five years trying to acquire his bachelor’s in arts. He selected a major that he thought was interesting without considering the possible career options post graduation. Unfortunately, due to his part time job and difficulties comprehending the material he took more than 5 years to graduate. When he graduates he will be left with a significant amount of debt and have difficulty paying off a housing mortgage with his entry-level salary. Thus he moves back in with his parents much to his chagrin. This ruins his dating prospects, as women are looking for a financially stable husband.

The judgments from other people for being off time are certainly irksome, but they can, in theory, be ignored. However, self-comparison and disconnect with social institutions have the potential to be significantly distressing to the college graduate. He has to watch his cohort of friends that he grew alongside with celebrate their anniversaries in social media as he toils through entry-level job with poor future prospects. This difference in life achievements leaves the late graduate feeling left behind and trying to play catch up. In addition, as he is older than most undergraduate and masters level graduates, he will often be passed up for internships. Since he is also older than 26 he has to purchase his own health insurance further depleting his potential savings.

9) What are the three components that make up Sternberg's triangular theory of love? Name the different kinds of love that result from combining those components. (p.444)

Three components are passion, intimacy, and commitment. Thus the best kind of love is a combination of the three called, consummate love. Other possible combinations can also arise.

·      Companionate love = intimacy + commitment (Often the result of decline from consummate love)

·      Fatuous love = passion + commitment (Shotgun marriage after passionate romance)

·      Romantic love = intimacy + passion (Often the beginning of a relationship, dating stage)

·      Liking = ONLY intimacy (Best buddies)

·      Infatuation = ONLY passion (Calling someone hot)

·      Empty love = ONLY commitment (Sticking to the marriage for the sake of it)

10) Describe the four attachment styles in adulthood and discuss their stability over time. (p.447)

Attachment styles in young adulthood are an extension of types of attachment as an infant. There are two measures here, levels of anxiety towards rejection and levels of avoidance of intimacy. The result is four styles: Secure, preoccupied, dismissive-avoidant, and fearful-avoidant.

·      Secure = Best. Intimate and low level of fear about being rejected.

·      Preoccupied = Want to be intimate and close, but are constantly afraid of rejection.

·      Dismissive-avoidant = Does not want to share feelings, not afraid of being rejected – self-sufficient frigid person.

·      Fearful-avoidant = Distrusts people in general and expects rejection.

Secure style attachment has the best prognosis of a long-term relationship compared to the other three. Preoccupied style attachment could result in a long-term relationship just with a clingy partner constantly in need of attention. Both dismissive-avoidant and fearful-avoidant attachments avoid intimacy required for sustaining relations and are likely to have short relationships.

Assignment 4 Chapters 15-19

1) Discuss changes in height and weight that occur during middle adulthood and the risks that frequently accompany them. (p.472-476)

In middle adulthood weight often increases with declines in metabolism creating a distinct “dad belly” or “love handles.” The increasing weight combined with a decrease in the bone of the spine leads to gradual height decreases (more extreme if osteoporosis present). The decline in height and increase in weight affects the BMI drastically and reflects possible increased risks from being overweight or obese. There is an increased risk of heart disease (such as Coronary Artery Disease, and atherosclerosis) and metabolic syndromes (such as hyperlipidemia). The increased risk in those organ systems presents a chain of risk elsewhere in the body from stroke to diabetes).

2) Define what is meant by the sandwich generation. Discuss the current relevancy of the term. (p.517-518)

Sandwich generation refers to middle age adults that are sandwich between the dual roles of providing for both ailing parents and children.

According to textbook cited sources (Rosenthal, Matthews, & Marshall, 1996; Spillman & Pezzin, 2000) the sandwich generation is a myth or at best an over exaggeration as only 6-10% of middle age men and women have to attend to the needs of both their children and parents. This is due to greater healthcare improvements that enable the elderly to live longer. However, with a rise in parental, this might change.

There is a sandwich for middle-aged women who provide a large portion of care for their elderly parents. However, the sandwich is between full-time work and caring for their parents instead of between children and parents.

3) List and describe the four different career patterns for women identified by Golan. (p.521-522)

·      Regular career pattern – Continuously staying in employment right after school.

·      Interrupted career pattern – Leave employment after having kids return when kids grow older.

·      Second career pattern – Have kids first and wait till they get older. Then, enters a career.

·      Modified second career pattern – Work part time when kids are young, switch to full time when kids are older.

4) Discuss how programmed, evolutionary, and random damage theories explain why we age. (p.538-540)

·      Programmed theories – Humans are genetically programmed to age and die.

·      Evolutionary theories – Genes are focused on fitness during early age of high reproductive capability, but not after. Less fitness leads to assortment of health problems.

·      Random damage theories – Damages acquired over time exceed body’s repair rate.

Programmed theories have fallen from favor. The widely accepted view is that a combination of evolutionary theories and random damage theories is a better explanation of aging. This is because of both account for gene-environment interactions.

5) What are telomeres, what do they have to do with life expectancy, and what influences their shortening rate? (p.540-542)

Telomeres are the protective tips of chromosomes that get shorter and shorter with each subsequent cell division. After the telomeres have reached a minimal shortening point, the cells stop dividing and deteriorate. Thus, rapid cell division decreases life expectancy by rapidly shortening the telomeres and deteriorating the cells. Any factors that increase cell division such as damage to tissue or abundance of certain carcinogens increase the telomere shortening rate.

6) Discuss how an older adult with a specific disability might use selection, optimization, and compensation to better manage his or her life. (p.574)

An older adult with a specific disability such as a paraplegic can use selection, optimization, and compensation to maintain an active social life despite being limited.

·      Selection (Selecting specific goals to pursue) à Example: Choosing social meetups accessible by wheelchair.

·      Optimization (Using resources to reach goals) à Example: Strengthening arm muscles to improve transferring ability.

·      Compensation (Finding alternate ways maintain goals with dwindling resources) à Example: Using arm bars to move from sitting to standing positions.

7) Explain why, contrary to past generations, when Baby Boomers reach retirement age, many opt to stay in the workforce. (p.592-593)

Baby boomers often opt to stay in the workforce for three reasons: capability, enjoyment, and income. The change in the industry from manufacturing to service industry places less emphasis on physical fitness and more on mental expertise. Despite being older and suffering from decreased body function, Baby Boomers still retain expertise in their specific fields allowing them the option to continue working in administrative or consulting positions. The work itself might provide the Baby Boomer within intrinsic sense of joy as well as meaning leading them to work longer. Lastly, financial constraints might encourage them to work longer as well.

8) List and elaborate on the five stages of dying suggested by Elizabeth Kubler-Ross. (p.616-617)

·      Denial – People refuse to believe that they are in the process of dying. They will exhaust every other possible alternative, grasping for straws in the hopes of getting contrary news. If diagnosed a serious illness, patients will often consult with multiple other doctors to confirm the diagnosis.

·      Anger – When reality starts to sink in, people start to become angry. They will blame others for letting them die and seek to find someone responsible for their demise. Pointing the finger at others for their problems, some patients will mistakenly blame the doctors for giving them the diagnosis.

·      Bargaining – People start to think about goals and dreams left unfulfilled and start to bargain with deities, institutions, and or figures of authority to live long enough to complete these goals. Patients will often become super religious or appeal to medical professionals for any possible ways to extend their life expectancy.

·      Depression – When hope of bargaining more time passes, people fall into a deep depression about their impending doom. There is a strong feeling of powerlessness and no control over their surroundings. Patients usually seclude themselves away from others.

·      Acceptance – Finally accepting that death is near. Usually occurs towards near the end of a terminal illness. The patient usually makes a deathbed confession or ends with farewells.

The five stages of dying are NOT set in stone. The order of the stages can be rearranged and some stages can be missing altogether.

9) Compare the care given terminally ill patients in hospitals and hospice. (p.619-62)

·      Hospital care for terminally ill: Generally NOT well suited to meeting needs of terminally ill. Large institutions with the limited staff that specialize in delivering medical treatment, BUT not compassionate care. Staff limits and organizational structure prevents sensitive, compassionate care.

·      Hospice care for terminally ill: Special type of palliative care for those with less than 6 months left to live. The organization is structured around providing counseling services and minimizing discomfort. Social workers and healthcare providers work together to help the families cope with the imminent death of the elderly.

PSY 240 Assignments 1 & 2

 Assignment 1

1) Explain the four goals of developmental psychology.

Developmental psychologist study human development because they are interested in

·      Describing how people develop at different stages of their life and how they change are they age.

·      Explaining the causes of developmental change and seeing how different factors create variability among individuals.

·      Predicting the future of the individual based on current characteristics and factors.

·      Intervening in societal structures with the goal of using developmental expertise to improve the lives of the general public.

2) What are the advantages and disadvantages of naturalistic observation, interviews, and experiments? Give examples of an appropriate study for each of these methods.

·      Naturalistic observation advantages (+): Allow researchers to see the behavior of participants in real environments.

·      Naturalistic observation disadvantages (-): Long periods of time spent waiting for an event that may not happen.

·      Interview advantages (+): Large sample size due to ease of data collection. Lower cost to distribute and collect data.

·      Interview disadvantages (-): Need to carefully phrase question, else possible room for misinterpretation. People may lie about their situation.

·      Experiment advantages (+): Only reliable way to establish cause and effect. Researchers control the variables and conditions.

·      Experiment disadvantages (-): Data gained from the experiment could be inapplicable to real life. Participants may act differently in the experimental environment. Some questions cannot be experimented on live humans because it would be unethical.

3) Nathan and Uri are identical twins. Describe the shared and non-shared elements of their environments, and show how these are likely to affect the twins’ level of similarity.

·      Shared environment of the twins: Family home with the same type of parenting. Children spent over 8 hours a day in their home environment and spent most of their early life attached to their parents. When both factors are the same it becomes likely for the outcomes to be the same as both are affected by the same factors.

·      Non-shared environment: Different friends, friend groups, and classrooms. Despite living in the same home and under the same parents, twins can develop differently based on the influence of their peers at school.

4) Use the epigenetic perspective to explain the development of intelligence in children.

As the child comes into contact with the environment its genome activates or inhibits certain genes involved with intelligence. The outcome would affect the intelligence of the child in a positive or negative manner. One example in the child’s environment that would improve intelligence would be the number of books present at home. These could influence the child’s contact with literature and improve literacy overall.

5) Describe one of the options for treating infertility from the textbook. Be sure to explain the advantages and disadvantages.

·      Fertility drugs: (Benefits +) Hormone based agents are NOT invasive and can be done without any complicated procedures. (Disadvantage -) Hormones may clash with female hormonal cycle producing unintended side effects.

·      Surgery to repair damaged reproductive system: (Benefits +) Surgery repairs allow use of natural organs. (Disadvantages -) Like with all surgeries possibility of post-surgical complications of infection or organ failure.

·      Artificial insemination: (Benefits +) direct injection into uterus avoids any complicated surgeries and allows for fertilization in the natural environment of uterus. Can be done at home with/without doctor supervision depending on the country. (Disadvantages -) Getting a needle to introduce sperm runs the risk of damage to the reproductive tract.

·      In vitro fertilization (IVF): (Benefits +) Fertilization of ovum with sperm is guaranteed on petri dish. Embryos inserted into mother’s womb based on timed cycle. (Disadvantages -) Multiple pregnancies, cycles of stress and disappointment due to < 30% success rate.

·      Surrogate mother: (Benefits +) Birth is given naturally from capable mother; good alternative to fertility issue is on mother’s end. (Disadvantages -) Birth mother could become attached to child and renegade on the deal. Birth mother introduced to increased risk throughout her pregnancy.

6) Explain how both biological and environmental influences shape the development of the brain during the embryonic and fetal periods.

·      Biological influences: Genes activate the specialization of the embryo’s cells into layers ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm. Ectoderm folds to form neural tube with brain forming at the top at 3.5 weeks. Neurogenesis begins and continues until about the 6^th month. Chromosomal abnormalities and or genetic mutations can affect brain development.

·      Environmental influences: Diet, stress, and teratogens all affect the brain’s development. Specific nutrients such as folic acid and vitamin B in the diet are essential for brain formation. Without adequate folic acid and vitamin B, there is an increased risk of CNS abnormalities such as anencephaly and spina bifida. Stress can also cause brain abnormalities that could lead to schizophrenia later on. Various teratogens can cause an assortment of defects during the development of the CNS.

7) Explain the effects that teratogens may have at different stages of a pregnancy.

·      Teratogens can affect the CNS, heart, arms, eyes, legs, teeth, palate, external genitalia, and ear of the infant during the prenatal phase. The effect of the teratogens depends on the sensitivity period of the corresponding organs.

·      Risks for defects are especially high for the CNS and Eyes as their abnormalities can occur throughout almost the entire prenatal development (barring the first four weeks for the eyes). CNS runs risk of anencephaly and spina bifida. Eyes run risk of blindness, deficient/reduced vision.

·      Both limbs: arms and legs are at risk from the 4^th week to the 9^th week of pregnancy. One example of the possible frightening results is thalidomide effects resulting in malformed limbs.

·      Heart is sensitive from the 3^rd to 9^th week of pregnancy. Risks include valve issues and poor blood flow.

·      Both the teeth and the palate are sensitive from the 5^th week to 13^th week of pregnancy. The risks are poor teeth/palate composition and possible discoloration.

·      Ears are sensitive from the 6^th week onward till the 20^th week of pregnancy. Possible teratogen effects will affect audio perception.

·      External genitalia are vulnerable from the 5^th week onward till birth. Defects here have effects on gender, hormones, and future fertility.

8) Define synaptogenesis, synaptic pruning, and myelination. Explain how each of these processes affects the development of the brain during infancy.

Synaptogenesis: Forming of new synaptic connections between the axon terminal of a neuron and the dendrites of another. Serves a vital function in connecting new memories, actions, and thought processes together.

Synaptic pruning: Removal or breakdown of unused synaptic connections to make space for used neural synapses. Unused memories from infants are removed to make space for newer memories causing infantile amnesia.

Myelination: Coating on axon of neuron that helps increase the conduction of the electrical signal. Increased myelination of certain motor neurons later in life helps to smoothen muscle movement.

9) List and describe 2 of an infant’s basic reflexes. Explain how an infant’s reflexes are indicators of evolutionary adaptability.

·      Palmar grasp: Babies instinctively tighten their grip if what they are holding onto is raised upward. Evidence of a trait that allows babies to support their own weight in early infancy incase they are at risk of falling.

·      Moro reflex: Babies swing their arms wide and bring them together again if the baby suddenly loses support or is stimulated by a loud sound. Evidence of a trait that allowed infants to grab onto their mothers in periods of danger.

10) Explain the process of adaptation outlined by Jean Piaget (include descriptions of assimilation and accommodation). Give examples to support your description.

·      Adaption is the process by which infants understand new principles or concepts about their environment through experience. Adaption is a two-step process.

·      In the first step, assimilation, the novel concept or principle discovered is placed into an existing framework of knowledge.

·      When the new concept cannot be assimilated into the existing framework, the framework is modified so as to allow the new concept to fit in.

Assignment 2

1) Define the four attachment styles listed in your textbook. Describe the Strange Situation test, and explain how it’s used to study attachment.

Strange Situation test looks to see how the infant reacts after being left completely alone or with a stranger. The test looks to see the type of attachments infants have with their parents at the 10-24month mark. 4 Different types of results:

·      (Type A) Insecure-avoidant (20%) – NOT distressed by absence, avoids and ignores parent on return.

·      (Type B) Securely attached (65%) ✔ - Distressed by absence, seek parent interaction on return.

·      (Type C) Insecure-ambivalent (10-15%) – Distressed by absence, seek parent interaction BUT reject parents when offered.

·      (Type D) Disorganized (Small %) – Incomplete movements, confused about approaching parents.

Attachments besides Type B indicate possible disturbances later in childhood especially when it comes to coping with stress.

2) List the order in which infants’ primary and secondary emotions typically develop, and describe how these emotions are expressed. Explain why these emotions seem to appear in this order.

·      Primary emotions such as curious, surprise, anger, fear, sadness, shyness, and joy are believed to be deeply rooted in biology and early life. These emotions tend to be direct responses to stimuli and are important for animals to develop first since they are central to survival.

·      Secondary emotions such as embarrassment, pride, guilt, shame, and envy are emotions developed later in life because they require high levels of thinking. Comparisons to others require that infant first understand the difference between self and others.

3) Describe the development of fine motor skills in early childhood. Explain how both brain development and experience contribute to this progression.

In early childhood, children fine-tune their fine motor skills going from twisting off jar lids (year 2) to being able to dress themselves (year 5) in a span of three years. Both experience and physical brain development contribute to this leap in motor skill. For the brain:

·      Synaptogenesis and synaptic pruning help to improve neuron response time.

·      Myelination of connection between the cerebellum and cerebral cortex improves balance and control of body movements. Myelination also improves hand-eye coordination.

·      Lateralization of the brain causes handedness.

·      Rapid development of corpus callosum allows for a smoother connection between brain hemispheres.

Experience aids in the process of fine motor skills:

·      Allows the child to practice and perfect skills.

·      With encouragement children can learn to read and write.

4) Explain and give examples of the thinking processes of children in the preoperational period described by Piaget. Discuss limitations on their thinking abilities, as well.

2^nd stage of cognitive development (ages 2 – 7) = preoperational period. Children acquire the ability to think about objects and events not present.

·      Dramatic rise in vocabulary.

·      Children do pretend play, represents the ability of the child to use symbolic representation.

GAPS in Preoperational Period Thought:

·      Inability to understand conservation of volume, mass, and number.

·      Unable to apply logical operations of reversibility and classification.

·      Egocentrism = inability to see others viewpoints.

·      Animism = Belief that inanimate objects are alive and have human characteristics.

5) Explain how adults can encourage the development of literacy in children.

·      Reading to the child.

·      Having the child read to the parent.

·      By increasing the number of books available for reading in the house.

6) Explain how siblings can influence each other’s interactions with adults and other non-related children.

·      Since under same environment, siblings provide important opportunities to practice social skills.

·      Siblings with good relations serve as a basis for role model and negotiation. = To close friend.

·      Even siblings with bad relations can be buffers for social isolation.

7) Describe the different types of play-related behavior and how they change as the child develops.

The first types of play that develop during infancy:

·      1^st Exploratory play: To discover information from the objects in the surrounding environment.

·      2^nd Symbolic play: Children mimic activities performed by others.

This later advances to a higher level of play:

·      Unoccupied – Doing nothing.

·      Solitary play – Playing on their own.

·      Onlooker – Just watching.

·      Parallel play – Play next to another but not playing together.

·      Associative play – Social interactions with others, but not towards a common goal.

·      Cooperative play – Social interactions with other and working towards a common goal.

Pretend play = associative +/ cooperative play gives opportunities to practice negotiation, compromise, and management skills.

8) Describe the different memory strategies you might teach children to help them improve both their short- and long-term memories.

Strategies to improve short-term memories:

·      Chunking information – sorting information into categories and or groups.

Strategies to improve long-term memories:

·      Repetition/rehearsal of information

·      Relating new information to prior information

9) Explain why both the phonics and whole language approaches are both necessary to children’s development of reading ability.

·      Phonics: Emphasizes matching the written word to spoken sounds.

·      Whole language: Emphasizes using context clues to figure out new words.

Both are mutually supporting with phonics allowing for easier reading early on, and whole language allowing for better reading comprehension later on.

11) Describe how a child in middle childhood might feel about cheating in terms of preconventional, conventional, and postconventional moral reasoning.

·      Preconventional: Cheating is bad because when the teacher catches you, you get a zero.

·      Conventional: Cheating is bad because teachers and parents say cheating is against the rules.

·      Postconventional: Cheating is bad because you are only cheating yourself out of a good education. The tests are designed to figure out which students need additional help. By cheating, you are skewing your grades and preparing yourself for failure the next time.

12) Describe the different forms aggression takes in middle childhood and the various strategies and skills that children at that age can now use to cope with conflict.

·      Physical Aggression – Physically hitting another person with the intent to harm.

·      Verbal Aggression – Using sounds to insult or threaten another person.

·      Social Aggression – Actions taken to harm a person’s reputation with others.

At middle childhood child has more strategies and skills for coping with conflicts:

·      Better reading of social cues

·      Able to delay immediate response

·      Emotional self-regulation

·      Negotiation

13) Extra Question Time: When dealing with forms of aggression in relation to bullying, what are the coping methods? Which is the best protection?

·      Retaliation – Responding within kind with aggression.

·      Passive – Capitulating to the treatment.

·      Adaptive – Getting help. (Only 8%)

Best protection against bullies: Buddies and friends.