Angus
C. Graham’s book, Disputers of the Tao:
Philosophical Argument in Ancient China, portrays Mohism as a radical
reaction of lower status individuals to the growing social instability of
China. According to Graham, Mohism began from an artisan named Mo-Tzu that
developed a school of thought advocating strict utilitarianism. Likewise, the
end of Mohism also went hand in hand with the end of powerful artisan influence
in cities. While Graham does well at explaining Mo-Tzu’s three tests of
argument and the different sects of Mohism, he mistakenly attributes the Mohist
“benefit” principle as originating from status differences. This view of Mohism
as a reactionary force of artisans against the status quo taints the rest of
his analysis. Mohism was not a school of thought that arose from the lower
stratum. Rather it was a school of thought that originated from Confucianism.
First
we will start off with what Graham got right. He paints three different sects
of Mohism, which he labels as purist, compromising, and reactionary.[1]
The purists are the ones closest to the original doctrine of Master Mo. The
other two are called as such based on their level of deviation from the purist
stance, with reactionary being most distant. It is not difficult to imagine
such a schism as history provides us with abundant examples of religious
schisms from the Sunni and Shia of Islam to the Protestant and Catholic of
Christianity. A school of thought such as Mohism would be more inclined to fracturing
owing to the rigid nature of the doctrine.
Graham’s
next important insight comes when he refers to Mohism’s three tests of argument
as, “the Three Gnomons.”[2]
The Oxford English Dictionary defines a gnomon as, “A pillar, rod, or other
object which serves to indicate the time of day by casting its shadow upon a
marked surface; esp. the pin or triangular plate used for this purpose in an
ordinary sun-dial.”[3] The Mohist believed that judging
the morality of actions was similar to a measuring instrument; calculations
were precise and irrefutable. Thus, Graham’s translation of the three tests to “the
Three Gnomons” connects the measurement of time to the Mohist desire for exact assessments
of mortality. The Three Gnomons of morality are the assertion of origin,
validation of the senses, and demonstration of utility.[4] Graham
notes that the first and third gnomons are applied often. In contrast, the
validation of the senses, the second gnomon, is only employed on the sections
dealing with the spiritual. From afar this appears as a weak point in the
Mohist doctrine. Graham explains this peculiarity as an attachment of the lower
stratum to rewarding and punishing divinities of “folk religion.”[5] In
actuality, the Mohists kept the explanation of ghosts and the will of heaven in
their writings because both ghosts and heaven played important roles in Mohism,
as we shall see later on.
Graham
incorrectly introduces Mo-Tzu as an artisan of humble birth and uses this false
image as a foundation for his later discussions. He builds his case by pointing
out the dry repetitive prose of early Mohist writings as evidence of the
writer’s artisan origins.[6] He
further theorizes that the fall of the Mohist school of thought was connected
to the loss of artisan influence in cities after the reunification of the
Empire.[7] All
of these assumptions about artisan origins are malarkey. What Graham fails to
account for is the reason behind Mo-Tzu’s familiarity with Confucianism. Burton
Watson comments on Mo-Tzu’s early education in his book, Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsün Tzu, and Han Fei Tzu, stating “he
first studied under the scholars of the Confucian school.”[8] Prior
to starting his own school of thought, Mo-Tzu was originally a follower of Confucianism.
It is unlikely that someone who works with his hands for craftwork would be a
scholar. The more plausible explanation would be that Mo-Tzu was similar to
Confucius, a member of the knight class. Further evidence of Mo-Tzu’s scholarly
background is available through his heavy use of the Book of Odes and the Book of
Documents. He frequently refers to the sage kings and other historical
figures.[9] Therefore,
Mohism did not originate from an artisan, but a scholar.
Mo-Tzu’s
educational background as a former Confucian explains his bitter attack on
Confucius. Nothing makes a bitterer enemy than a former believer. At some point
in time, Mo-Tzu became disillusioned with the teachings of Confucius. The likely
culprit for Mo-Tzu’s rejection of Confucianism was the doctrine’s vagueness on
material prospects of the future. Confucian teachings valued learning, ancient
rites, and music, but provided no specific guarantees about achieving any sort
of success as a statesmen. Instead Confucian ideology shunned official position
and wealth, while advocating abstract concepts like “the way,” and
“benevolence.”[10] The vagueness of
determining the correct path combined with a continuing deterioration of
society during the Spring and Autumn Period must have frustrated some
Confucians such as Mo-Tzu. These dissents of Confucianism turned to concrete
ideas such as “benefit” to inform their actions.[11]
Material benefit, unlike benevolence, is a physical quantity that can be
measured to provide a standard to judge the morality of actions. This readily
available measurement of morality provides a convincing school of thought in
opposition to Confucianism.
The
prose and style of Mohist writings reflects, not artisan origins as claimed by
Graham, but rather scholarly origins in conjunction with a belief in identifying
with one’s superior. The Basic Writings
of Mo Tzu seeks to impart the wisdom of its master in similar fashion to
the Analects. Thus, most lines of
reasoning throughout the text begin with “Mo-Tzu said.”[12]
Yet the writings of Mo-Tzu differ from the Analects
in the number of participants talking. Unlike in the Analects where Confucius converses with his disciples, Mo-Tzu
lectures without any other speakers. The lack of other speakers reflects the
Mohist belief in respecting one’s superior. There is no room for opposing
voices. Either one follows the command of the superior or faces punishment from
above.[13]
This inflexible chain of command ties into the belief of an omnipotent and
omniscient heaven.
Graham
attributes Mohist belief in spirits and heaven’s will as a result of their
lower status origin. He maps out the Mohist role of heaven as a personal entity
to “enforce true morality by reward and punishment.”[14] Graham
dismisses this Mohist stance as “less religious.”[15] He
acknowledges the new role that heaven plays in Mohism, but sees the use of a
deity for ensuring justice as a cheapening of religious value. Graham’s
viewpoint is valid. Dragging a supernatural entity into the realm of human
politics does create a blurring of the borders between faith and secular
society. However, Mohist conservatism for an omnipresent deity can be seen as
akin to a theocracy. Instead of less religious, theocratic states are more
religious to the extreme, where laws are dictated by the holy text. In the case
of Mohism, a belief in an omnipotent deity is essential to make sure that the
hierarchy of authority runs smoothly. Thus, heaven gains religious significance
at the top of the chain.
The fall of the Mohism
school of thought was a result of the unpopularity of the doctrine’s rigid code
and infighting among the sects. Graham’s artisan theory is no longer tenable as
we have already determined that Mohism originated from a disillusioned
Confucian scholar. A study of the Mohist doctrine reveals why the school of
thought could not gain widespread popularity. The ideals are too extreme to
live by. There is a rigid command structure that turns to omniscient deities to
enforce a code of ethics. Universal morality calls for everyone to be treated
as family, an unrealistic proposition. Stemming from universal morality, is a
complete rejection of offensive warfare of any kind regardless of a valid causas
bellli. Utilitarian calculation removes music and anything that “brings no
benefit to the common people.”[16]
Thus, as stated by the author of a late chapter of Chuang Tzu, “It causes the people to be anxious, to be sorrowful,
and its ways are hard to follow.”[17] In
addition, the teachings of Master Mo became increasingly diluted among the
splinter sects. Purists clung on to the original doctrine, but faced stiff
competition from rivaling “heretical Mohists” that could appeal to a larger
audience by softening or changing policies.[18] The
infighting among the sects weakened them to other schools of thought.
[1] Angus C. Graham, A
Breakdown of the World Order Decreed by Heaven, 51-53.
[2] Ibid., 37.
[3] "gnomon, n.".
OED Online. March 2017. Oxford University Press.
http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/79523?redirectedFrom=Gnomon (accessed March 25,
2017).
[4] Burton Watson, Basic Writings of Mo Tzu, Hsün Tzu, and Han
Fei Tzu, 118.
[5] Graham, 47.
[6] Ibid., 34.
[7] Ibid., 34-35.
[8] Watson, 1.
[9] Ibid., 25, 29, 32, 33, 44,
45, 85, 102, 124.
[10] Confucius, The Analects,
Book VI, Chapter 4 and Book IX, Chapter 7.
[11] Watson, 62.
[12] These are just some of
the examples present in the text. Ibid., 18, 22, 34, 39, 44, 52.
[13] Ibid., 34-35.
[14] Graham, 48.
[15] Ibid., 47-48.
[16] Watson, 111.
[17] Ibid., 13.
[18] Graham, 35.
