In the Spring and Autumn period of ancient China, Confucius and his disciples struggled to make sense of the disintegrating world order. Their solution to the unfolding chaos is reflected in the Analects. At first glance, the Analects appear to preach a conservative doctrine of ancient customs and fixed hierarchies. Upon closer inspection, the text contains aspects of social reform such as a new emphasis on morality and education. The integration of both elements of tradition and change within the text makes the Analects a combination of social reform and social conservatism.
Ancient
rites, filial patriarchy, and strict hierarchy are three elements of
conservatism present in the Analects.
Ancient rites are old rituals used to establish social integration among the
people. Combined with the ancient rites is filial patriarchy, a system that emphasizes
respect for one’s elders, especially those who are male. The rites and elder
worship merge with a strict hierarchy to enforce the position of the ruling
elite. Together these three elements serve as the traditional foundation of the
Analects.
The
ancient rites are from old literature such as the Odes and the Book of History
as well as past Chou (Zhou) customs. Confucius admits to borrowing from this
past when he states, “there may be some who invent without prior knowledge. I
am not such one.”[1]
For Confucius these ancient rites were a part of a gigantic ceremony necessary
for a virtuous and righteous society.[2] Confucius’
proposed the ancient rites as the solution to society’s ills. The idea was to
return to the customs of the past to bring order to the present. Further
evidence of conservative thought is visible when Confucius compares the past to
the present. He decries the state of education with its scholars that “seek only
to impress “ and lack knowledge of the Odes.[3] Furthermore,
his nostalgia is visible in the Analects
when he sings praises about the Chou (Zhou) dynasty.[4] His
complaints about the present reflect on his idealized image of the past, a
typical conservative notion.[5]
At
the core of the Confucius’ conceptualized ceremonial government was its
smallest cohesive unit, the family. Once again we see a conservative tint in
Confucius’ recommendations for family. According to his guidelines, majority of
the power and respect for the family should go to the father. The father is the
original creator so it is expected that his descendants submit to his
authority.[6] Even
after the death of the parents, the children are expected to remain respectful by
mourning for three years.[7] This
heavy emphasis on seniority is just one aspect of traditional family ideals. Another
aspect is the subordination of women. Women are seen as bringers of ruin. Confucius
describes women as “difficult to deal with” because of their insolence and
whining.[8] He
further equates women to seductresses that pull men away from the path of
virtue.[9] It
is clear that the Analects expects
women to exercise no power in society.
The
structure of the state hierarchy is reinforced by Confucius’ sayings. The key
to maintaining order in the empire rests on the centralized, concentrated power
of the emperor.[10] No
other ministers, advisors, and feudal lords are to hold significant power over
the central authority. Confucius’ aversion of “clever talkers” in Book XVII, 18
of the Analects demonstrates his antipathy
towards those who try to act out of their assigned role in hierarchy. He goes
as far as to say that even the “commoners do not express critical views” in the
ideal society where “the way” reigns.[11] This
imagined world, lacking in rebellious upheaval and achieved through fixed authority,
displays classic conservative dogma.
While
traditional values provide a basis for Confucianism, the Analects does include aspects of reform. Along with the appeal to
tradition, Confucius includes a new emphasis on self-improvement via education
with the ultimate goal of achieving “the way”. Here, education serves as a tool
of social mobility and provides fluidity to the rigid class structure. “The
way,” an invented phrase, gains new meaning as a path to enlightenment that
ignores the materialism of conservative thought. Rather than contradict the Analects’ traditional basis, the reforms
supplement the conservative text.
Under
Confucianism, learning is pursued for the sake of learning. Confucius frowned
upon studying solely for status and wealth. Through learning and experience, a
person can rectify their errors and become more benevolent and virtuous. A
perfect example of the reforming power of education was Confucius himself. Despite
the lack of government post, he was shown enormous respect as a teacher.[12] Yet
he, himself, never claimed to be an all-knowing sage.[13]
Rather, he viewed himself as a student more willing to learn than everyone
else. His ultimate goal was to “go bathing in the River Yi, enjoy the breeze on
the Rain Altar, and then go home chanting poetry.”[14] This
vision was in stark contrast to the imaginations of high officials who envisioned
the future through material worth.
“The way” was a newly invented phrase of the
time that aimed to illustrate the path to a brighter future. There is an aspect
of meritocracy that is being pushed here in the Analects. In contrast to the strict hierarchy of society that
rewards the powerful and wealthy, “the way” is open to all, regardless of
status. Learning is the new equalizer that will allow someone to become a
better person. Such a concept is radical in that the system of achievement lies
outside of local norms. Scholars in pursuit of enlightenment can take pride in
the fact that they are “poor yet delighting in the way.”[15]
Arguments
can be made that the conservative aspects of Confucianism outweigh the reforms because
there was no drastic change to the status quo. Indeed Confucianism often emphasized
traditions and whatever reforms were present focused on abstract ideas. However,
the influence of doctrine’s progressive ideals should not be underestimated. Learning
for self-improvement remains a strong topic today for the development of educated
and productive citizens. Likewise learning in the past was important because it
prepared people to live morally regardless of the material disadvantages
accompanying such a lifestyle. Leaders of the past seem to have understood this
importance for they came to seek Confucius’ advice. That a man of humble birth would
be able to capture the loyalty of a large number of disciples is evidence
enough of the power of his ideas. Still, historians such as A.C. Graham claim
that the Confucians manage to outlast other schools because of their “monopoly
on traditional education” instead of their unique mixed doctrine.[16] I
disagree; while conservatism serves as a wonderful platform for social unity,
it fails to respond adequately to periods of crisis. Instead what allowed
Confucianism to thrive was its idea of self-help that could appeal to anyone
regardless of status. Even without immediate material gains, followers of
Confucius could take heart in knowing that their studies would make them better
people.
The
Analects could easily be considered a
purely conservative piece of literature. The text laments days long gone and calls
for a return of the ancient rites to society. Strict family principles and an
inviolable ruler are also called for. Yet new concepts such as “the way” and indefinite
learning restructured the population along new guidelines. Together, these aspects
of tradition and change make the Analects
a mixed message of conservatism and reform.
[1] Confucius, The Analects, Book VII, 28.
[2] Graham, A Breakdown of the World Order Decreed by
Heaven, 13.
[3] Confucius, Book XIV, 24 and
Book XVII, 9.
[4] Ibid., Book III, 14.
[5] Ibid., Book XIV, 24.
[6] Confucius states that being
filial is “never failing to comply.” Ibid., Book II, 5.
[7] Ibid., Book XVII, 21.
[8] Ibid., Book XVII, 25.
[9] Ibid., Book IX, 18.
[10] Ibid., Book XVI, 2.
[11] Ibid., Book XVI, 2.
[12] Ibid., Book II, 21.
[13] Ibid., Book VII, 20.
[14] Ibid., Book XI, 26.
[15] Ibid., Book I, 15.
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