The Analects, a collection of statements by Confucius and his peers, reflects a combination of social reform and social conservatism. Social reform comes in the form of a moral state with an emphasis on education. Social conservatism comes in the form of a patriarchy with a fixed hierarchy based on ancient customs. The integration of both elements of reform and conservatism into the Analects created a convincing doctrine that appealed to multiple groups in ancient Chinese society.
Ancient
rites, filial patriarchy, and strict hierarchy are three elements of
conservatism present in the Analects.
Ancient rites are old rituals used to fulfill social harmony among the people. Combined
with the ancient rites is filial patriarchy, a system that places respect on
one’s elders especially those who are male. On top of the rites and elder
worship is a strict hierarchy that enforces the position of the ruling elite.
Together these three elements serve as the traditional foundation of the Analects.
The
main basis of the ancient rites came from old literature such as the Odes and the Book of History as well as past Chou (Zhou) customs. Confucius
admits to borrowing from the past when he states, “there may be some who invent
without prior knowledge. I am not such one.”[1] These
ancient rites were to serve as a gigantic ceremony necessary for a virtuous and
righteous society.[2] Confucius’
advocacy for ancient rites was his answer to society’s ills. The idea was to
return to the customs of the past. Furthermore, his nostalgia is visible in the
Analects when he sings praises about
the Chou (Zhou) dynasty.[3]
Thus, his complaints about the present reflect on his idealized image of the
past, a typical conservative response to rapid changes.[4]
At
the core of the pictured ceremonial government was its smallest cohesive unit,
the family. Once again we see a conservative tint in Confucius’ recommendations
for family. According to his guidelines, majority of the power and respect for
the family goes to the father. The father is the original creator of the family
so it is expected for those who descend from him to submit to his authority.[5] Even
after death, the children are to remain respectful of their parents by mourning
for three years.[6] The
place of women in the family is complex as they are seen as both the creators of
life and the bringers of ruin. Confucius describes women as “difficult to deal
with” because of their insolence and whining.[7] Further
discussion about women equates them as seductresses that pull men away from the
path of virtue.[8] However,
the respect towards parents does extend towards mothers and also entails the three-year
mourning.
The
structure of the state hierarchy is reinforced by Confucius’ sayings. He
insists on the ruler being a ruler over the people.[9] The
key to maintaining order in the empire rests on the centralized, concentrated
power of the emperor.[10] No
other ministers, advisors, and feudal lords are to hold significant power over
the central authority. Confucius’ aversion of “clever talkers” in Book XVII, 18
of the Analects demonstrates his antipathy
towards those who try to act out of their assigned role in society. He goes as
far as to say that even the “commoners do not express critical views” in the
ideal society where “the way” reigns.[11] This
imagined world, lacking in rebellious upheaval and achieved through fixed authority,
displays classic conservative dogma.
While
traditional values provide a basis for Confucianism, the Analects include aspects of reform. Along with the appeal to
tradition, he includes a new emphasis on self-improvement via education with
the ultimate goal of achieving “the way”. Here, education serves as a tool of
social mobility and helps to provide a source of fluidity to the rigid class
structure. “The way,” an invented phrase, gains new meaning as a path to
enlightenment that ignores the crass materialism of conservative thought.
Under
Confucianism, learning is pursued for the sake of learning. Rather than aiming
for government office or wealth, learning is done for the sole purpose of
improving one’s own mind. Through learning and experience a person can learn
from their errors and become more benevolent and virtuous. A perfect example of
the reforming power of education was Confucius himself. His position as a
teacher and a lack of government participation was an alternate way to live
life.[12] Yet
he, himself, never claimed to be an all-knowing sage.[13]
Rather, he preferred to view himself as a student more willing to learn than
everyone else. His ultimate goal was to “go bathing in the River Yi, enjoy the
breeze on the Rain Altar, and then go home chanting poetry.”[14] This
vision was in stark contrast to the imaginations of high officials who
preferred to see objects through material worth.
“The way” was a newly invented phrase of the
time that aimed to illustrate the path to a brighter future. In contrast to the
strict hierarchy of society that rewards the powerful and wealthy, “the way” is
open to all, regardless of status. There is an aspect of meritocracy that is
being pushed here in the Analects. Instead
force or wealth, learning is the new equalizer that will allow one to become a
better person. Such a concept is radical in that it designs a system of achievement
outside of local norms. While the scholars in pursuit of “the way” may be poor,
they can take pride in the fact that they are living a life in accordance to
the rites.
Arguments
can be made that the conservative aspects of Confucianism outweigh the reforms because
there was no drastic change from the status quo. Indeed Confucianism often emphasized
traditions and whatever reforms were present focused on abstract ideas such as
feelings rather than material goods. However, the influence of doctrine’s
progressive ideals should not be underestimated. Learning for self-improvement
remains a strong topic today for the development of educated and productive
citizens. Likewise learning in the past was important because it prepared
people to act morally regardless of the material disadvantages accompanying such
as a lifestyle. Leaders of the past also seem to have understood this
importance for they came to seek Confucius’ advice. That a man of humble birth would
be able to capture the loyalty of a large number of disciples is evidence
enough of the power of his ideas. Still writers such as A.C. Graham are likely to
claim that the Confucians manage to outlast other schools due to their
“monopoly on traditional education.”[15] I
disagree. While conservatism serves as a wonderful platform for social unity,
it fails to respond adequately to periods of crisis. Instead what allowed
Confucianism to thrive was its ideal of self-help that could appeal to anyone
regardless of status. Even without immediate material gains, followers of
Confucius could take heart in knowing that their studies would make them better
inhabitants.
The
Analects could easily be considered a
conservative or radical piece of literature. Laments of days long gone and a
desire to return the ancient rites back to their rightful place in society
emanates from the text. Strict family rules and an inviolable ruler are called
for. Yet new concepts such as “the way” and indefinite learning are also included
in the text. Together these aspects of tradition and change make the Analects a mixed message of conservatism
and reform that reflects on modern day Chinese society.
[1] Confucius, The Analects, Book VII, 28.
[2] Graham, A Breakdown of the World Order Decreed by
Heaven, 13.
[3] Ibid., Book III, 14.
[4] Ibid., Book XIV, 24.
[5] Confucius states that being
filial is “never failing to comply.” Ibid., Book II, 5.
[6] Ibid., Book XVII, 21.
[7] Ibid., Book XVII, 25.
[8] Ibid., Book IX, 18.
[9] Ibid., Book XII, 11.
[10] Ibid., Book XVI, 2.
[11] Ibid., Book XVI, 2.
[12] Ibid., Book II, 21.
[13] Ibid., Book VII, 20.
[14] Ibid., Book XI, 26.
[15] Graham, 32.
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